Student-Centered and Constructivist Approaches to Instruction

A. What is the constructivist view of learning?

One of the most important principles of educational psychology is that teachers cannot simply give students knowledge. Students must construct knowledge in their own minds. The teacher can facilitate this process by teaching in ways that make information meaningful and relevant to students, by giving students opportunities to discover or apply ideas themselves, and by teaching students to be aware of and consciously use their own strategies for learning. The essence of constructivist is the idea that learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own. Constructivist strategies are often called student-centered instruction.

1. Historical Roots of Constructivism

Social Learning

Children learn, he proposed, through joint interactions with adults and more capable peers. On cooperative projects, like the one in class, children are exposed to their peers' thinking processes; this method not only makes the learn­ing outcome available to all students, but also male.es other students' thinking processes available to all.

Zone of Proximal Development

Children are working within their zone of proximal development when they are engaged in tasks that they could not do alone but can do with the assistance of peers or adults.

Cognitive Apprenticeship

This term refers to the process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction witl1an expert, either an adult or an older or more advanced peer. The process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older or more advanced peer.

Mediated Learning

This principle is used to support the classroom use of projects, simulations, explorations in the community, writing for real audiences, and other authentic tasks.

1. Top-Down Processing

Top-down means that students begin with complex problems to solve and then work out or discover (with the teacher’s guidance) the basic skills required. The constructivist approach works in exactly the opposite order, beginning with problems (often proposed by the students themselves) and then helping students figure out how to do the operations.

    2. Cooperative Learning

Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make extensive use of cooperative learning, on the theory that sn1dents will more easily discover and comprehend difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems.

    3. Discovery Learning

Discovery learning is an important component of modern constructivist approaches that has a long history in education innovation. Students are encouraged to learn largely on their own through active involvement with concepts and principles, and teachers encourage students to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to discover principles for themselves. Discovery learning a constructivist approach to teaching in which students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves.

1. Self-Regulated Learning
   Self-regulated learners are ones who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them. Self-regulated learners are motivated by learning itself, not only by grades or others’ approval.
2. Scaffolding
   Scaffolding is a practice based on Vygotsky’s concept of assisted learning. In assisted learning, or mediated learning, the teacher is the cultural agent who guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning. The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles paint a picture of the learner as actively seeking knowledge by (1) reinterpreting information and experience for him­ self or herself, (2) being self-motivated by the quest for knowledge (rather than being motivated by grades or other rewards), (3) working with others to socially construct meaning, and (4) being aware of his or her own learning strategies and capable of applying them to new problems or circumstances.

Constructivists believe that knowing is a process and that learners must individually and actively discover and transform complex information to make it their own. Constructivist approaches emphasize top-down processing, in which students begin with complex problems or tasks and discover the basic knowledge and skills needed to solve

B. How is cooperative learning used in instruction?

Cooperative learning exercises can be as simple as a five minute in class exercise or as complex as a project which crosses class periods. These can be described more generally in terms of low, medium, and high faculty/student time investment.

• Low (simple, informal, less than 15 minutes, in-class)
• Medium (one to two meeting sessions, more formal, in or out of class)
• High (complex, formal, across multiple class periods, in and out of class)

A series of studies of this cooperative scripting method has consistently found that students who study this way learn and retain far more than students who summarize on their own or who simply read the material.

In cooperative learning, small groups of students work together to help one another learn. Cooperative learning groups are used in discovery learning, discussion, and study for assessment. Cooperative learning programs such as Student Teams­ Achievement Divisions (STAD) are successful because they reward both group and individual effort and improvement and because groups are responsible for the individual learning of each group member.

C. How are problem-solving and thinking skills taught?

1. The Problem-Solving Process
   Problem solving is the application of knowledge and skills to achieve certain goals. Bransford and Stein (1993) developed and evaluated a five-step strategy called IDEAL:
   I           Identify problems and opportunities
   D         Define goals and represent the problem
   E          Explore possible strategies
   A         Anticipate outcomes and act
   L          Look back and learn
   IDEAL and similar strategies begin with careful consideration of what problem needs to be solved, what resources and information are available, and how the problem can be represented.
2. Teaching Creative Problem Solving
   Life is full of situations that call for creative problem solving, as in figuring out how to change or end a relationship without hurt feelings or how to repair a machine with a bent paper clip.

1. Incubating
   Incubation Creative problem solving is quite different from the analytical, step- by­ step process that was used to solve problems. One important principle is to avoid rushing to a solution.
2. Suspension of Judgment
   In creative problem solving, students should be encouraged to suspend judgment, to consider all possibilities before trying out a solution. One specific method based on this principle is called brainstorming, in which two or more individuals suggest as many solutions to a problem as they can think of, no matter how seemingly ridiculous. Only after they have thought of as many ideas as possible is any idea evaluated as a possible solution. The point of brainstorming is to avoid focusing on one solution too early and perhaps ignoring better ways to proceed.
3. Appropriate Climates
   Creative problem solving is enhanced by a relaxed, even playful environment. Perhaps even more important, students who are engaging in creative problem solving must feel that their ideas will be accepted.
4. Analysis
   Analysis One method of creative problem solving that is often suggested is to analyze and juxtapose major characteristics or specific elements of a problem.
5. Engaging Problems
   One key to the teaching of problem solving is providing problems tl1at intrigue and engage children. The same problem-solving skills could be involved in a context that is eitl1er compelling or boring to students, and this matters in the outcomes.
6. Feedback
   Provide practice with feedback. Perhaps the most effective way to teach problem solving is to provide students with a great deal of practice on a wide variety of problem types, giving feedback not only on the correctness of their solutions but also on the process by which they arrived at the solutions.

      3. Critical Thinking

1. Critical thinking is the ability to make rational decisions about what to do or what to believe. Beyer (1988) identified 10 critical-thinking skills that students might use in judging the validity of claims or arguments, understanding advertisements, and so on:
   1. Distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims
   2. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, claims, or reasons
   3. Determining the factual accuracy of a statement
   4. Determining the credibility of a source
   5. Identifying ambiguous claims or arguments
   6. Identifying unstated assumptions
   7. Detecting bias
   8. Identifying logical fallacies
   9. Recognizing logical inconsistencies in a line of reasoning
   10. Determining the strength of an argument or claim. (p. 57)
   Beyer notes that this is not a sequence of steps but rather a list of possible ways in which a student might approach information to evaluate whether or not it is true or sensible. The key task in teaching critical thinking to students is to help them.

Problem-solving skills are taught through a series of steps, including, for example, means-ends analysis and problem representation. Creative problem solving requires incubation time, suspension of judgment, conducive climates, problem analysis, the application of thinking skills, and feedback. Thinking skills include, for example, planning, classifying, divergent thinking, identifying assumptions, identifying misleading information, and generating questions.  Thinking skills can be taught through programs such as Instrumental Enrichment; creating a culture of thinking in the classroom is another useful technique.